Articles online early
The following articles have been copy-edited and peer-reviewed and have been published online through Blackwell Publishing's OnlineEarly feature before appearing in the print edition.
Public and private service at the early Stuart court: the career of William Raylton, Strafford's agent
Fiona Pogson
Published Online: Dec 21 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00535.x Copyright © 2009 Institute of Historical Research
William Raylton, agent to Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, played an important role in the lord deputy's management of his political alliances, particularly his significant association with Archbishop Laud. This article argues that Raylton, an intelligent man with lengthy experience of the signet office, and possibly also of the posts, did more than take charge of Wentworth's extensive correspondence. The archbishop's letters show how, using well-timed visits and his own knowledge of court affairs, Raylton provided Laud with valuable assistance in his efforts to protect Wentworth's interests. They offer some insight into Raylton's participation in discussions on sensitive matters, a less conventional aspect of the role of an agent.
From menace to celebrity: the English police detective and the press, c.1842–1914
Haia Shpayer-Makov
Published Online: Dec 21 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00526.x
Surveying the changing image of the police detective from the inception of detective departments in the new police in the mid Victorian era through to its formative period in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is vital to our understanding of how the system of crime control was perceived at the time. Initially, the notion of undercover policing was widely rejected. By the eve of the First World War, however, police detectives, especially at Scotland Yard, enjoyed an almost heroic reputation. In the belief that the press was the most significant factor in shaping the dominant view on police detectives during this crucial period, this article examines their changing image as reflected in newspapers and periodicals, and the role played by the press in this metamorphosis.
'Mr Wesley's Business': dissenters, debt and distress in 1705
W. Gibson
Published Online: Dec 14 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00521.x Copyright © 2010 Institute of Historical Research
Employing hitherto unused archives from the Bodleian Library, this article seeks to explain the circumstances in which Samuel Wesley was imprisoned in 1705. Methodist historians have tended to see Wesley as unfortunate, and some historians have regarded Wesley's debts as evidence of his incompetence with money. However, this article views the imprisonment from the perspective of Wesley's controversy with dissenters and of his engagement with convocation and the Lincolnshire election. In this context it is possible to see that he was almost certainly the victim of low church whig conspiracies to put pressure on him and attempt to silence his attacks on dissenters and the whigs.
Keeping 'the Old Flag flying': the British community in Morocco and the British Morocco Merchants Association, 1914–24
John Fisher
Published Online: Nov 4 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00527.x
This article examines the British expatriate community in Morocco and specifically in Tangier at a formative time in the country's history. Growing French ascendancy in Morocco and the strains imposed by war exposed weaknesses in British prospects in Morocco coupled with declining official interest in Britain's future there. The British community, and merchants involved in the Morocco trade, sought to resist these developments. In doing so they were inspired by war-time patriotism as well as by self-interest. Their efforts took various forms including the establishment of the British Morocco Merchants Association. The article suggests that in view of Morocco's increasingly marginal role in British foreign policy after the First World War, these efforts were unlikely to have much impact.
Administrative efficiency in fourteenth-century England: the delivery of writs based on evidence from the register of Bishop Martival
Michael Ray
Published Online: Oct 21 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00529.x
During his episcopate of Salisbury (from 1315 until 1330), Robert Martival kept a careful note of all the royal writs he received. In most cases he noted the date on which a writ arrived and where he received it. He also registered the date on which the writ had been authorized and where the authorization was agreed. Both the bishop and the royal court were itinerant, so an analysis of the speed of the delivery of writs casts light not only on fourteenth-century English bureaucracy but also on journey times.
The archive of the official of Stow and the 'machinery' of church government in the late thirteenth century
Ian Forrest
Published Online: Oct 21 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00528.x
The government and administration of the late medieval church is often said to have relied upon bureaucratic 'machinery'. Using unpublished documents from the archive of Benedict of Ferriby, official of the archdeacon of Stow in the later thirteenth century, the author argues that bureaucracy was not simply mechanical and that ecclesiastical administration depended on personal relations and local knowledge. The operation of pastoral care and ecclesiastical justice in the localities is illuminated, the use of documents is discussed, and the role of the laity in these operations is explored.
Losing hearts and minds in Iraq: Britain, Cold War propaganda and the challenge of communism, 1945–58
Johan Franzén
Published Online: Oct 5 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00520.x
This article analyses British policy towards Iraq during the period following the Second World War until the 1958 Iraqi revolution. Using British archival sources it demonstrates how Britain covertly tried to stem the rise of communist and nationalist anti-imperialist sentiments in Iraq through an insistence on employing ill-fitting anti-communist propaganda designed as a Cold War weapon with which to counter Soviet influence. Failing to appreciate the level of indigenous politicization, because of their own rigid ideas about the nature of the 'Iraqi mind', British officers were incapable of devising local responses to the growing threat of anti-imperialism, instead inadvertently handing over the initiative to Iraqi political groups to set the agenda. In this way Britain gradually lost the battle for hearts and minds in Iraq despite maintaining a huge propaganda apparatus in the country and the wider region.
The last years of Herbert the Chamberlain: Weaverthorpe church and hall
Richard Sharpe
Published Online: Sep 11 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00523.x
C. W. Hollister identified H. the chamberlain, punished with mutilation for his part in a plot against the life of Henry I around 1118, with Herbert the Chamberlain, long connected with the king's treasury at Winchester. Herbert's death in 1129 had long ago been inferred from the Pipe Roll of 31 Henry I, but Hollister had already developed an argument against too easy acceptance that a relief in a pipe roll provided evidence for a person's very recent death. He argued that Herbert must have died soon after his mutilation, supporting this with a date from a forged act in King Henry's name from Nostell priory. A coherent view of the documents from Nostell relating to Weaverthorpe church shows Hollister to be mistaken in redating Herbert's death, and the evidence of an incomplete sun-dial inscription at Weaverthorpe provides grounds for a conjecture that he lived out his days in obscurity there until his death in 1129.
Warrants under the signet in the reign of Edward IV
Theron Westervelt
Published Online: Sep 11 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00525.x
While fifteenth-century historians have long appreciated the importance of the signet and have incorporated it into their work on the politics and government of the time, the surviving warrants issued under the signet to the great and privy seals have not been studied in depth. By examining the surviving signet warrants in the files of the chancery and privy seal office, it is possible to detect some of the changes which were occurring in the governance of England with the overthrow of Henry VI and the accession of the Yorkists.
Secrecy, splendour and statecraft: the jewel accounts of King Henry III of England, 1216–72
Benjamin L. Wild
Published Online: Sep 11 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00524.x
Appended to the royal wardrobe accounts, the jewel accounts of King Henry III of England are the earliest records of their type. Describing gifts that were given and received by the king, the purchase of textiles, precious metal objects and specie, as well as the regalia, the Henrician jewel accounts provide valuable information about the aesthetics and material culture of English kingship during the thirteenth century. This article explains how the royal jewel accounts were created and structured, considers their utility, and shows how they can be used to shed new light on Henry III's character and kingship.
The Brownlow Estate Bill select committee in the house of lords, 1717: a glimpse into the politics and the workings of the committee system
Clyve Jones
Published Online: Sep 11 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00522.x Copyright © 2009 Institute of Historical Research
On 27 May 1717 the house of lords select committee on a bill dealing with the estate of the late Sir John Brownlow, third baronet, sat for the only time. Sometime in the previous week, Lord Guilford, a member of the committee, acting on behalf of members of the Brownlow family, wrote to eleven members of the committee asking them to attend. This document, a very rare example of a peer lobbying a select committee on a private bill, is examined to indicate how select committees were established and how they worked, and how important politics might be in this process. An appendix is included showing when the method of nominating members to committees in the house of lords changed in 1689.
Henry VII and the Bristol expeditions to North America: the Condon documents
Evan T. Jones
Published Online: Aug 27 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00519.x
Little is known about the Bristol discovery voyages of the years 1496–1508 and, as my recent article in this journal has shown, even less is certain. The current article contributes to research in this field by publishing two 'new' documents, which were first discovered in the nineteen-seventies but, for the reasons explained here, have not been published until now. These documents are significant both because they reveal important new information about the voyages and because they serve to confirm some of the remarkable, but previously unsubstantiated, claims made about the expeditions by the late Dr. Alwyn Ruddock.
A prelude to the reforms of Admiral Sir John Fisher: the creation of the Home Fleet, 1902–3
Matthew S. Seligmann
Published Online: Jan 19 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.0950-3471.2008.00484.x
During 1902 and 1903 the Admiralty progressively reorganized its forces in home waters. A heterogeneous collection of scattered, inefficient and partially manned vessels that rarely went to sea together was transformed slowly into a permanent and cohesive fighting force. Unlike Fisher's fleet redistribution of 1904, these earlier measures have attracted little attention. Yet, as this article will argue, in creating first the Home Squadron and then the Home Fleet and constituting these new commands as permanent fully manned sea-going units, these reforms laid the necessary foundation for Fisher's later work. They are thus significant both in their own right and as the forerunners of later reforms.
Morally transforming the world or spinning a line? Politicians and the newspaper press in mid nineteenth-century Britain
David Brown
Published Online: Dec 18 2008
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2008.00482.x
As mid Victorian newspapers spoke of their ever more important role as educators and representatives of the 'people', the rise of a free and independent press seemed central to notions of an age of 'improvement'. However, for many politicians, the press remained simply a tool to be exploited in order to advance their political agendas. By examining the relationship between politicians and metropolitan journalism in the mid nineteenth century, this article contrasts the claims of a press growing in confidence with those of an increasingly media-literate political class and argues that the press was in practice far more the instrument of politicians than the rhetoric suggests.
The origins of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act and the extension of British sovereignty
C. R. Pennell
Published Online: Aug 4 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00516.x
The passing of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act of 1843 has been described as an early stage in the extension of British hegemony over the Ottoman empire and a 'juridical simulation of "conquest"'. This article argues that it was really designed to extend British jurisdiction over disorderly individuals, not over territory. It was part of an effort to enforce sovereignty over detached subjects that began in the early modern period, and became more urgent as the empire and economic hegemony increased. It was also not an entirely British process – French governments engaged in the same policies at the same time – and was extended beyond the boundaries of the Middle East to take in a world compass.
Unitarians and the contradictions of liberal Protestantism in Victorian Britain: the Free Christian Union, 1867–70
Michael Ledger-Lomas
Published Online: Jul 3 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00518.x
Recent research on secularization in later Victorian Britain has emphasized the proliferation of substitute religions as a compensation for the decline in the Church of England's – and by extension Christianity's – intellectual and ethical authority. This article complicates that picture by drawing attention to a group of predominantly Unitarian liberal Protestants who attempted to moderate the privatization of religious belief and the consequent decay of a theistic consensus by creating a new kind of non-dogmatic church, the Free Christian Union (1867–70), which Protestants and theists of every disposition could join without sacrifice of conscience. This article analyses the Union's history, arguing that its rapid collapse both illustrated the appeal and exposed the contradictions involved in the liberal Protestant attempt to reconcile fidelity to individual conscience with the agreement on theological principles that an effective Christian church required.
The 'Babylonian captivity' of Petracco di ser Parenzo dell'Incisa, father of Francesco Petrarca
Barbara Bombi
Published Online: Jul 3 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00510.x
This article focuses on the discovery of two unedited notarial instruments preserved among Westminster abbey muniments and compiled by Petracco di ser Parenzo dell'Incisa, father of the Italian poet Francesco Petrarca. The two documents are dated February and April 1310 and prove that Petracco was working at Avignon earlier than it has been thought until now and in contrast with the claims of his son Francesco, who states that his family moved to Avignon between 1311 and 1312. The documents also highlight the connections between Petracco and the merchant company of the Frescobaldi, who traded at the papal curia in the early fourteenth century. The company employed a number of exiled Florentine Bianchi, who were interested in humanist ideas and classical texts, forming the first humanist circle at Avignon under the patronage of Cardinal Niccolò da Prato, who also became one of the patrons of Francesco Petrarca.
'Contrary to the liberties of this city': Henry VII, English towns and the economics of law and order
Mark R. Horowitz
Published Online: Jul 3 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00509.x
One major consideration for the stability of Henry VII's reign involved relations with the cities and towns. Realizing it was untenable to control local elites fully from the centre, the first Tudor pursued a policy of financial and judicial constraints based in part on bonds to bring municipalities into the fold of royal rule. This was accomplished through financial obligations in return for city liberties, and the constant vigilance by royal councillors to ferret out forfeitures from those who broke the law. Such activity was especially true for London, where close scrutiny by royal councillors and their minions may have brought about a potential confrontation between City leaders and the crown. At Henry's death, English towns had been drawn closer to a developing 'national' government and law.
A spy on the payroll? William Herle and the mid Elizabethan polity
Robyn Adams
Published Online: Jun 25 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00517.x
A body of recent work focusing on the components of Tudor policy has drawn attention to those 'second-rank' figures crucial for the efficient running of the Elizabethan administration. After close archival excavation, men like Robert Beale, largely marginal to the historiography of the period for so long, have now been identified and credited with a role which was fundamental to the smooth operation of the Tudor political system. In this group of men, participating on the fringes of the polity and whose activities, whether clerical or more recondite, contributed to the formation of domestic and international policy, is found William Herle, an agent, diplomatic envoy and intelligencer for Elizabeth I's ministers. An elusive figure, and passed over by many scholars, Herle's epistolary contribution to the administrative and intelligence bureaux of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, and Sir Francis Walsingham reveals the information channels and structures behind the decision-making process of this triumvirate of political heavyweights and their conciliar fraternity.
Edward IV's Brief Treatise and the treaty of Picquigny of 1475
Michael A. Hicks
Published Online: Jun 25 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00515.x
This article discusses Edward IV's Brief Treatise, a propaganda tract that sets out the Yorkist title to the three crowns of England, France and Castile. It discusses the five surviving manuscripts and recent editions, and establishes that there are two versions of c.1462 and after 1468. The contents are summarized and what is distinctive is identified. The propagandist nature of the tract, its relationship with other Yorkist texts, its message and dissemination are examined. The Brief Treatise is important primarily as a short and handy statement capable of wide transmission. The final section examines evidence of its continued utility: a case is made that a copy of the Brief Treatise was taken on campaign in 1475 by a member of King Edward's council of war, who noted the outlines of the eventual settlement at the end. These notes suggest an informed contemporary reaction to the treaty of Picquigny that differs somewhat from modern scholarly assessments.
'Not in any doubtfull dispute'? Reassessing the nomination of Richard Cromwell
Jonathan Fitzgibbons
Published Online: Jun 25 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00508.x
This article challenges the widespread belief that Oliver Cromwell nominated his eldest son as his successor. By looking closely at private correspondence, official publications and parliamentary debates, the article demonstrates that the surviving evidence does not suggest that Oliver Cromwell ever nominated a successor in his own lifetime. Instead, it would seem that the ultimate decision to confer the title of lord protector on Richard Cromwell was taken by the privy council at Whitehall in the hours following his father's death. The implications of this are examined, both in terms of the council's motives and the ultimately debilitating effect it had on the protectorate as a whole.
The legend of Black Friday
C. J. Bearman
Published Online: Jun 25 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00507.x
The Women's Social and Political Union (W.S.P.U.) wove around itself a series of legends contributing to a mythology, which continues to be repeated as suffragette history. This article examines this mythology's centrepiece, the legend of 'Black Friday', the allegation that suffragettes were brutally attacked by the police during demonstrations between 18 and 23 November 1910. It challenges the accepted story by rigorous use of archive sources – principally contemporary newspapers and National Archives files – and offers conclusions which should lead to a searching reassessment of W.S.P.U. tactics and methods.
The bawdy master of St. Thomas's Hospital
William B. Robison
Published Online: May 19 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00504.x
These two documents from the state papers of Henry VIII, one previously misdated, provide evidence of Thomas Cranmer's and Thomas Cromwell's investigation between 1536 and 1538 of ecclesiastical corruption involving Sir Richard Mabot, master of St. Thomas's Hospital in Southwark. This is an example of Cranmer and Cromwell genuinely attempting reform – the abuses at St. Thomas's were extensive – but Cromwell may also have tried to exploit the case to his advantage in his ongoing struggle with Bishop Stephen Gardiner for political influence with the king and to determine the future direction of the English church.
'Philosophically playing the Devil': recovering readers' responses to David Hume and the Scottish Enlightenment
Mark Towsey
Published Online: May 19 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00503.x
This article assesses the impact made by the Scottish Enlightenment on eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century readers, focusing especially on their responses to the controversial works of David Hume. Although Hume's History of England and collected Essays and Treatises could be found on most contemporary library shelves, it finds that many readers were alienated by Hume's scepticism and turned to Scottish Common Sense philosophers such as Thomas Reid, James Beattie and George Campbell to disprove some of his more 'obnoxious' pronouncements. In the process, it highlights the potentialities and pitfalls inherent in a range of complementary approaches to the history of reading.
Roman, canon and common law in twelfth-century England: the council of Northampton (1164) re-examined
Anne J. Duggan
Published Online: May 19 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00502.x
Against the background of the long-running debate about the extent to which the creation of English common law was influenced by principles of jurisprudence and forms of action derived from the Roman law of Justinian and the ecclesiastical canon law which was developing in the wake of Gratian's Decreta/Decretum, this article examines William FitzStephen's eyewitness account of the staged trial of Thomas Becket at Northampton in 1164 to throw new light on the juridical context within which that law was born.
'A proud and headstrong man': John of Ivry, bishop of Avranches and archbishop of Rouen, 1060–79
Richard Allen
Published Online: Mar 11 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00486.x
In 1067, John of Ivry, son of Rodulf, count of Ivry, became archbishop of Rouen. Previously bishop of Avranches, his episcopate was fundamental to the restoration of ducal authority in western Normandy, and key to the reintegration of his diocese into the Norman ecclesiastical mainstream. His archiepiscopate is notable for its conciliar, judicial, literary and political legacy, yet is frequently overshadowed by the exploits of his contemporaries, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and Geoffrey de Montbray, bishop of Coutances. A comprehensive analysis of his career contributes not only to our understanding of the eleventh-century Norman church, but also to that of ducal Normandy itself.
Historical writing in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Scotland: the Dunfermline compilation
Alice Taylor
Published Online: Mar 9 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00496.x
This article examines the first three items in a manuscript housed in the Royal Library in Madrid but written at the Benedictine abbey of Dunfermline in Fife, Scotland during the reign of James III (1460–88). It argues that the three items were originally put together during the reign of Alexander III (1249–86) and together formed a compilation which should be viewed as the earliest extant history of the twelfth- and thirteenth-century kings of Scots. Interestingly, the Dunfermline compilation did not stress the Irish ancestry of the kings of Scots, as might be assumed, but instead set its subjects against the backdrop of their Anglo-Saxon descent from the house of Cerdic. The article then considers the relationship of the Dunfermline compilation to Turgot's Vita Sancte Margarete and Aelred of Rievaulx's Genealogia Regum Anglorum and argues that the use of these sources in the compilation suggest that it was put together for a particular political purpose, a purpose for which the Anglo-Saxon ancestry of the kings of Scots had particular relevance.
Faith in the factory: the Church of Scotland's industrial mission, 1942–58
Elaine McFarland, Ronnie Johnston
Published Online: Mar 9 2009
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2009.00493.x
This article interprets the Church of Scotland's post-war industrial mission project as a deliberate attempt to relate constructively with the changing social world. The analysis places this case study in the wider context of industrial mission experiments in France, England and Germany. Although the scheme was less radical than its European counterparts, this article suggests that it was more widely represented in Scottish workplaces and better integrated into the structures of the mainstream church. This comparison not only points to the relative institutional vitality of the national church, but also to the enduring strength of a broader 'discursive Christianity' in Scotland.
Local heroes: war news and the construction of 'community' in Britain, 1914–18
Michael Finn
Published Online: Aug 19 2008
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2008.00480.x
Historians have often argued that mass mobilization in First World War Britain was only made possible by a conspiracy of silence as to 'the realities of war' on the part of the press barons and the government. This article, focusing on the city of Liverpool and its environs as a case study, argues instead that British civilians had a surprisingly accurate view of the trench experience, fostered both by soldiers' correspondence and the local press. It goes on to argue that local newspapers were integral in sustaining community-focused narratives of combat – largely through the manipulation of heroism – that made bereavement bearable, war intelligible and mobilization possible.
The revival of the British women's auxiliary services in the late nineteen-thirties
Jeremy A. Crang
Published Online: Aug 19 2008
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2008.00478.x
Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War the women's auxiliary services were revived in Britain. Disbanded in the aftermath of the First World War, they were re-formed in the late nineteen-thirties as the Auxiliary Territorial Service, the Women's Auxiliary Air Force and the Women's Royal Naval Service. These organizations were to undertake ancillary tasks for the army, R.A.F. and Royal Navy in time of war. This article investigates the re-establishment of the women's services and emphasizes the role women themselves played in gaining re-admittance into the servicemen's sphere.
The Royal Navy's Vietnam War: H.M.S. Warrior and the evacuation of refugees from North Vietnam, September 1954
Philip E. Catton
Published Online: Aug 19 2008
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2008.00479.x
This article examines H.M.S. Warrior's role in transporting several thousand refugees from North to South Vietnam, which was part of a much larger evacuation of people that followed the Geneva Conference of 1954 and the partition of Vietnam at the seventeenth parallel. Although Warrior only moved a relatively small number of Vietnamese, the story of the ship's involvement in this episode offers not only a birds-eye view of the refugee exodus but also an insight into Britain's broader diplomatic interests in South East Asia. Drawing on archival records and oral interviews, the article explores events from the perspective of both the policy makers who sent Warrior to Indochina and the sailors who participated in the mission.
'Testimony (to some extent fictitious)': proofs of age in the first half of the fifteenth century
Matthew Holford
Published Online: 3 June 2008
doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2008.00471.x
This article offers an assessment of the reliability and value of proofs of age produced c.1400-50. It argues that the testimonies recorded in these proofs must be treated with considerable scepticism. From around 1420 onwards, proofs with demonstrably fictitious or conventional testimonies were produced in increasingly large numbers. The documents had become something of a formality, and it was not expected that they would be closely scrutinized. But despite these caveats, proofs of age cannot simply be dismissed. Many are not obviously conventional in their contents; and even in certain apparently fictitious documents, care was taken to provide some accurate information.
The 'Nabob of the North': Sir Lawrence Dundas as government contractor
G. E. Bannerman
Published article online: 4-Jan-2008
doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2007.00447.x
This article examines the career of the military contractor and businessman Sir Lawrence Dundas (1710-81). In a controversial career, Dundas achieved notoriety for the fortune that he acquired from government contracts. In historiographical terms, the identification of contracts with patronage and jobbery, by contemporary and modern observers, has obscured the importance of contractors to the British army. In detailing Dundas's activities, largely from official source material, this article argues that the organizational capacity, logistical expertise and management skills of Dundas, and many other contractors, were a vital co-ordinating element within, and component of, the power of the 'fiscal-military state'.